POINTS TO REMEMBER

. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the founder of the Sultanate, was
a slave of Muhammad of Ghur.
. The independent dynasty founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak is referred to as the mameluks or slave dynasty, because two other prominent rulers of the Sultanate-Iltutmish and Balban-were also slaves. These rulers, however, did not descend from a common ancestor.
. Aibak received the title of Sultan of Delhi from Ghiyas­
ud-din Mahmud, the successor of Muhammad Ghur.
. Aibak was also known as lakh bakhsh (giver of lakhs).
He constructed two mosques Quwatul-Islam and Arhai­
Din ka Jhonpara, at Delhi.
. Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, threatened to attack
the Sultanate during the reign of Iltutmish.
. Iltutmish completed the structure of Qutb Minar in
Delhi, the construction of which had been started by
Aibak.
. Qutb Minar was dedicated to Khwaja Qutb-ud-din
Bakhtiyar Kaki.
. Raziya Sultan, the only woman ruler to occupy the
throne of Delhi, was murdered near Kaithal.
. Balban's greatest contribution to the stability of the
Sultanate was to ensure respect for the kingly office. He
demolished the power of the 'college of forty' (chalisa),
a group of forty Turk nobles founded during Iltutmish's
rule.
. Kaiqubad was the last ruler of the slave dynasty.
. The Khalji Dynasty was founded by Jalal-ud-din Khalji,
whose original name was Firoz Shah.
. The 'New Muslims' were the Mongols who had con­
verted to Islam and settled down near Delhi during
Jalal-ud-din's reign.
. Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the first Sultan of Delhi who
clearly put forward the view that the state should be
based on the willing support of the governed. . Balban was also known as Ulugh Khan. . Malik Kafur, who helped Ala'-ud-din Khalji in his Deccan
campaign, was captured by the latter during his attack
on Gujarat in 1297.
. Deval, captured by Ala-ud-din Khalji, was a Devagiri
princess.
. Ala-ud-din Khalji defeated the Mongol leader Qutlugh
Khwaja.
. Ala-ud-din introduced the system of daag (branding
horses) and chehra (preparing descriptive rolls of sol­
diers). But his most remarkable reform was that of
. market regulation.
. Ala-ud-din appointed two new officers-diwan-i-riyasat and shaha-i-mandi-to keep a check on the market.
. Sarai adi was the name given by Ala-ud-din Khalji to
open market where all goods for sale were to be brought.
. Ala-ud-din built a new city, called Siri, and Alai Darwaja near Qutb Minar. . .
. The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas-ud-din
Tughlaq. . Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, built Tughlaqabad fort in Delhi.
. Muhammad-bin Tughlaq created an agricultural depart­
ment called diwan-i-kohi whose main object was to bring the uncultivated land under cultivation through state financial support.
. Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was called a 'Prince of
Moneyers' and 'Mixture of Opposites'.
. The Chinese ruler, Toghan TImur, sent an envoy to the court of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq to seek the Sultan's permission to rebuild Buddhist temples in the Hima­layan region. Bin Tughlaq sent Ibn Batutah, a Moorish traveller appointed as chief qazi of Delhi, to the Chinese empero{ in 1347.
. Ibn Batutah wrote Safarnamah which records Muhammad­
bin- Tughlaq' s adventures.
. Firuz Tughlaq was at Thatta (Sindh) when Muhammad­
bin- Tughlaq died in 1336.
. Firuz Shah Tughlaq established a charitable hospital
(diwan-i-khairat) in Delhi and founded the cities of
Firuzabad, Fatehabad, Firuzpur, Hissar and Jaunpur.
. Fatuhat-i-Firuz Shahi was written by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. . Firuz Shah Tughlaq was the first sultan to impose jaziya
on the brahmans.
. The final blow to the Tughlaq dynasty came with the
invasion of Amir Tunur or TImurlane, who was the ruler
of Samarkand (Central Asia).
. The Sayyid dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan, the
viceroy of Tunur. . The founder of the Lodi dynasty was BaWol LodL . Sikandar Lodi, the most capable Lodi ruler, shifted the
capital of Sultanate from Delhi to Agra, a city he
founded.
. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, invited Babar,
the king of Kabul, to overthrow Ibrahim Lodi.
. The diwan-i-wizarat, headed by Wazir, was in charge of
revenue and finance. The wazir also controlled other
departments. . Muhatsib was a censor of public morale. . Provincial governors of the Sultanate were called amils
or muqtas.
. Sultanate's fiscal policy was guided by Hanafi school of Sunni jurists. There were five kinds of taxes: (i) zakat (religious tax on wealthy Muslims); (ii) kharaj (land revenue); (Hi) khan (war booty); (iv) ushraf (on Muslim lands); and (v) jaziya or poll tax (ad~t non-Muslim males).

. t:and revenue, the most important source of revenue, was derived from khalisa (or crown lands) and iqtas (territories granted to officers).
. Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq checked
the influence of the ulemas and disregarded their advice.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

The exchange of ideas be­tween Hindus and Muslims resulted in the development of two popular movements.

(i) The Sufi Movement: Mystics, later called Sufis,-had risen in Islam at a very early stage. The Sufis propounded the idea of union with God through love and not prayer, ritual, and fasts. The Sufis had 12 orders or silsilahs, generally led by prominent mystics who lived in a khanqah. The link between the teacher or pir or shaikh and his disciples or murids was a vital part of the Sufi system. The Sufi orders were divided into two: Ba-shara, or those who followed the Islamic law such as the Chishti and Suhrawardi; and Be-shara, or those who were not bound by Islamic law.

The Chishti order was established in India by Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti. The Chishti order was popular in and around Delhi and the Doab. The most famous Chishti saints were Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi. Of the Suhrawardi saints, Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid-ud-din Nagori are the most famous. Like the Chishtis, the Suhrawardis did not believe in leading a life of poverty. The Suhrawardis were popular in Sindh. The Firdausi order was popular in Bihar. The Sufis made themselves popular by adopting musical recitations called sama. Qawwali was another form of singing at gatherings.

(ii) The Bhakti Movement: Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non-ritual­istic and open to all without any distinction of caste or
creed. Its cardinal principle was blzakti or unflinching devotion to a personal God whose Grace was the only means of attaining salvation. The real development of Bhakti took place in South India between the seventh and the twelfth centuries. The Saiva nayanarsand Vaishnavite alvars were its first propagators. Among the Bhakti saints were the Maharashtrians Namadeva and Ramananda, who were followers of Ramanuja. Ramananda's disciples in­
cluded Ravidas, who was a cobbler; Kabir, who was a weaver; Sena, a barber; and Sadhana who was a butcher. In the period under consideration, the Sufis influenced the Bhakti movement in ideas of love and brotherhood.

Among those who were most critical of the existing social order and made a strong plea for Hindu-Muslim unity were Kabir (1440-1518) and Nanak (1469-1539). Kabir emphasised the unity of God and expressed his ideas in dalzas or couplets. His followers were called Kabirpanthis. Guru Nanak laid great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God and the need of a guru for guidance. He advocated a middle path in which spiritual life could be combined with the duties of the householder. In course of time, the ideas of Nanak gave birth to a new creed called Sikhism"There also developed, in North India, the worship of Rama and Krishna, incarnations of God Vishnu. The greatest apostle of Krishna was Chaitanya in the east. He popularised musical gatherings or kirtans as a special form of mystic experience in which the outside world disappeared by dwelling on God's name. He is regarded as an incarnation of Sri Krishna.

LITERATURE

LITERATURE

Though primarily a military people, the Turko-Afghan rulers patronised learning. Amir Khusrau, the first Muslim writer to make use of Hindi words and adopt Indian themes, enjoyed the patronage of Balban, Ala­ud-din Khalji and Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. His famous works are Khazain-ul-Futuh, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Tughlaqnama, Tarikh-i-Alai, Laila Majnu, Aina-Sikandari, Nuh-Siphir, and Hasht Bihist. Among the writers of historical works, the most important are Amir Hasan DeWvi, Minhaj-us-Siraj, the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Zia-ud-din Barani, the author of Tabaqat-i-Firuz Shahi, and Shams-i-siraj Afif who wrote Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.
Vernacular literature got an impetus with the Bhakti movement. Ramananda and Kabir wrote poems in Hindi. Mira Bai composed her songs in Brajabhasa. The verses of Guru Nanak enriched the Punjabi language.

A good example of the union of Hindu and Islamic cultures was the evolution of the Urdu language (originally called zaban-i-hindavi). Amir Khusrau is considered the first Muslim to have used this language for the expression of his poetic ideas.

PAINTING and MUSIC

PAINTING The Sultanate painting shows an attempt to arrive at a fusion of the newly-introduced Persian and Indian traditional styles. The illustrated manuscript of Ni'mat Namat of the early 16th century, for instance, shows the fusion of Persian and Jaina styles. Many of the illus­trated manuscripts show the influence of Jain and Rajasthani painting styles. Out of the Sultanate painting tradition emerged three major sub-styles-Mughal, Rajasthani and Deccani schools, all of which displayed an individuality while bearing some common elements.

MUSIC When the Turks came to India, they brought with them a number of new musical instruments, such as the rabab and sarangi, and new musical modes and regu­lations. Most of the Sultanate rulers also patronised music. Balban encouraged the setting up of a society of dancers and musicians. Ala-ud-din Khalji patronised musicians such as Gopal Nayak and Amir Khusrau, who were conferred the title of nayak, or master. Khusrau introduced many Perso-Arabic ragas such as aiman, ghora, sanam, iman, zilb and sazagiri. He is also credited with having invented the sitar. Though music was banned in Ghiyas-ud-din's time, it was encouraged by Muhammad Tughlaq. Firuz Shah TugWaq is said to have been very fond of music. He got the Indian classical work Ragadarpan translated into Persian.

BEGINNINGS OF INDO-ISLAMIC CULTURE : ARCHITECTURE

BEGINNINGS OF INDO-ISLAMIC CULTURE

The coming of Islam to India brought in its wake a unique' mingling of cultural traditions, resulting in the growth of a composite culture. Evidence of this cultural contact is evident in the architecture, painting, literature, and music; it is also to be seen in the religious field.

ARCHITECTURE The period from 1206 to 1550 is generally referred to as the Pathan phase of Indo-Islamic architecture. The assimilation of different styles and ele­ments to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period. Many of the charac­teristics of Hindu architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers, for though designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them. The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were: (i) the dome; (ii) lofty towers; (iii) the true arch unsupported by beam; and (iv) the vault. These showed advanced mathematical knowl­edge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. The sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they erected numerous splendid edifices.

The best examples of the architecture of the Ilbari Turk dynasty (the Slave dynasty) are the Quwwatul-Islam mosque built by Qutb-ud-din in Delhi during 1191-98 and the Qutb Minar (1206-36) near the mosque which was founded by Qutb-ud-din and completed by Iltutmish. The Qutb Minar is striking for its symmetry and ornament. The Arhai-Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer, started by Qutb-ud-din, has a beautiful prayer hall, an exquisitely carved mihrab of white marble and a decorative arch screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said to be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli.

In the Khalji period, the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established once and for all. The monuments show a rich decorative character. Famous examples are the tomb" of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia at Delhi, whose style of beam-on-brackets under the entrance arch of the central chamber came to be almost regularly employed in subse­quent pre-Mughal buildings, and the Alai Darwaza built by Ala-ud-din Khalji in Delhi.
The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and so­briety-probably indicating less financial resources as well as a puritanical taste. The buildings are characterised by sloping walls and a dark appearance. Typical of the TugWaq style is the thick and battered or sloping walls, squinch arches for supporting domes, multi-domed roofs and taper­ing minaret-like buttresses or supports at the external angles of buildings. The trabeate and arcuate are combined. Some notable TugWaq monuments are the fort at TugWaqabad, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din TugWaq which marked a new phase in Indo-Islamic architecture by serving as a model for later tombs, the fort of Adilabad, Firuz Shah's capital at Delhi, now known as Kotla Firuz Shahi, and a group of buildings at Hauz Khas in Delhi with Firuz Shah's tomb.
The Sayyid period was too short to allow construction of elaborate buildings. But the tombs of this period display some characteristics such as use of blue-enamelled tiles, the lotus-motif covering the dome and free use of guldastas. These features had much influence on the architectural style of the subsequent period.
The resources available to the Lodis were limited, and this is clearly indicated by the hard and bare tombs they erected. But some of their buildings show an elegance, with the use of enamelled tiles-a technique introduced from Persia. A certain amount of imagination and a bold diversity of design is also displayed in the Lodi architecture. Another characteristic was the use of double domes. One building of note is the Moth Ki Masjid, erected by the prime minister of Sikandar Lodi.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

The chief sources of India's wealth were agriculture, tracL and commerce. The sultans were alive to the importana of agriculture and most of them promoted it by providin! facilities such as irrigation. The agricultural production Wa! surplus which made the necessities of life cheap. There Was widespread commerce, both internal and external. BengaJ was the main centre for trade with China and South-easi Asia. The Sultans also encouraged various industries such as silk-weaving and manufacture of golden tissues. India's imports were horses and luxury items. The balance of trade was always in India's favour. India now had contact with Europe also. Ports along the east coast of Africa provided an additional market.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

SOCIAL CONDITIONS
During the rule of the Delhi Sultans, the Muslim n< was a powerful political force. Under weak rulers power and ambitions rose high and even threatene stability of the government. The Muslim nobility period was not homogeneous in character, but coml of various nationalities such as Turk, Afghan, Abyssl Egyptian and Arab. As such it lacked effective solie to stand against the despotism of the sultan.

A herec aristocracy is a stabilising force, but the Muslim no was a disruptive force which very, often menaced integrity of the state. The Muslim divines called ulemas were the authorit exponents of Islamic theology. They were a highly i ential body. Ala-ud-din Khalji was the first Sultan checked their pretensions and disregarded their ad Another such sultan was Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq earned the wrath of the ulemas. The office of the ulema not hereditary in nature or confined to anyone rac country.

The lower classes of the Muslim society consistiq soldiers, clerks and men employed in trade and indu did not enjoy luxurious living though they had all privileges of being citizens of the land. They could ris the highest position by way of merit or even through rt preference. Slavery was a popular institution. Slaves were} both by the Sultan and the nobles. However, the SuJ could grant manumission to any slave, so that he cea to be a slave from then on. Sultans such as Qutb-ud­-Aibak, lltutrnish and Balban were slaves at the beginn of their careers.

The Hindus formed the vast majority of the populati Their society was caste-ridden. Owing to the Turk .-tendem:y of seeking beautiful Hindu girls for wives, ch marriage became common as a form of protection difference in the standards of living between the wealt few and the many poor was very wide. The extortioru demands of rulers like Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhamma bin- Tughlaq reduced the peasants to abject misery. An
Khusrau aptly observed, "Every pearl in the royal cro" is but the crystallised drop of blood fallen from the tearl eyes of the poor peasant."

Seclusion of women became a general practice at1 marriage of widows was unthinkable. Sati and jauhar we also prevalent during this period. Ibn Batutah was amaze to see Hindus drowning themselves in the Ganga to attai a holy jal samadlzi. The Hindus were also becoming ver superstitious.

LAW AND ORDER

LAW AND ORDER

The head of the judicial department was the chief qazi, who was styled as qazi-ul-qazat. He was responsible for the enforcement of Islamic law. He was aided by muftis who expounded the Quranic law. Every town had a qazi who was appointed by the Central government in consultation with the qazi-ul-qazat. The task of maintaining peace and order rested with the official known as the katwal aided by the muhatsib who was a censor of public morals. Amir-i-dad was responsible for apprehend­ing criminals. However, at village level, the panchayats
- settled disputes and arranged for policing their areas
through local watchmen known as chaukidars.
REVENUE POLICY In their fiscal policy, the sultans were guided by the Hanafi school of Sunni jurists. The revenue of the state was derived mainly from: (i) the zakat or religious tax levied upon well-to-do Muslims only; (ii) kharaj or tax on gross produce of lands of the non-Muslims; (iii) kham or the state's share of one-fifth of the spoils of the war; (iv) the ushraf or tax on gross produce of lands held by Muslims; and (v) jaziya or poll-tax imposed upon adult non-Muslim males. There were other taxes also like house tax, grazing tax, and octroi duties on income from mines, forests, etc.
The land revenue was the most important source of revenue. It was derived from the khalisa or crown lands and iqtas or territories granted to officers. The rate of assessment was unscientific and arbitrary. During Ala-ud-din Khalji's time it was fixed at 50 per cent of the gross produce. The bulk of the revenue was spent on the expenditure of the
army and the royal household.
THE ARMY The Delhi sultans maintained a strong army consisting of cavalry, infantry and elephants. There were four classes of army in the Sultanate era:
(i) Royal army It was the standing army of the Sultan.
The Royal army was a heterogeneous body consisting of Turks of various types such as the Tajiks, Persians, Mongols, Afghans, Abyssinians, Indian Muslims and the Hindus. The Royal army was called hashm-i-qalha, and was appointed by the central government.
(ii) Provincial governments' army The provincial governors and nobles had to maintain their own army. When needed, the provincial soldiers were handed over to the diwan-i-arij or the central army department.
,(iii) Holy War army It consisted of Muslim soldiers who joined the army as volunteers to fight wars against the Hindus. These soldiers did not get any regular pay, but were given a share out of the booty captured during war.
(iv) War time army It consisted of the soldiers recruited on a temporary 'basis in times of war. Cavalry was the backbone of the Sultanate's military strength. The army was organised on the decimal pattern.

ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE SULTANATE

ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE SULTANATE

IQTA SYSTEM The iqtadari was a unique type of land distribution and administrative system evolved during the Sultanate per~od. Under the system, the whole empire was divided into several large and small tracts of land, called the iqtas, which were assigned to nobles, officers and soldiers for the purpose of administration and revenue collection. The iqtas were transferable, i.e., the holders of iqtas-iqtadars-were transferred from one region to an­other every three to four years. It means that the grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land. It was just an administrative unit.

The iqtas could be big (whole province) or small. The assignees of bigger iqtas-known as muqti or lOali-had dual obligation, tax collection and administration. They collected revenue from their iqta, defrayed their own expenses, paid the troops maintained by them and sent the bawazil (sur­plus) to the Centre. Their accounts were checked by the royal auditors of the dilOan-i-lOizarat.
The holders of small iqtas were individual troopers. They had no administrative responsibilities. They appropri­ated, for their personal use, the land revenue collected by them. In return, when the central government called them
for service or inspection, they had to be present with horses and arms.
Muhammad of Ghur was the first to introduce the iqta system in India, but it was lltutrnish who gave it an institutional form. The iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the Sultanate period. Initially, iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land which was assigned in lieu of salary. However, during Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign, it became hereditary.

The government of the Delhi sultans was a theocracy in the sense that the ruler was subject to the Shariat, the Islamic law. The sultans were head of state, not religion, but their duty was to observe the Shariat in matters of state. The Sultan was an autocrat and his will was law, though he considered himself the deputy of the Khalifa. The Sultans of Delhi did not follow any law of succession. The choice of the sultan depended largely on the decisions of nobles. The organisation of the government was feudal in character. The provinces were mostly military fiefs entrusted to the charge of nobles.

The sultan was the chief law-giver and the final court of appeal. He was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He had a council of trusted advisers, called majlis-i-khaiwat which he consulted on important occasions but he was not bound to accept its decision. The business of the government was organised in several departments.

The lOazir was the chief minister of the state. He was in charge of revenue and finance, and controlled the other departments. l-Jis office was known as the dilOan-i-lOazarat. The next important department was diwan-i-arz headed by ariz-i-mumalik, who was responsible for the recruitment, payment and inspection of troops. The diwan-i-insha headed by dahir-i-mumalik managed the royal correspondence. Religious matters and endowments were dealt with by the diwan-i-rasalat headed by sadr-us sudur. (But Dr. Habibullah holds that this official managed foreign affairs, and received and sent envoys.) The sadr-us-sudur enforced the Islamic rules and regulations, and supervised charity and pious foundations.

In the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate was divided into a number of military regions, called iqtas. The provinces were also called iqtas. Each province was under a mukti or lOali. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, three types of provinces existed. Muktis or lOalis were responsible for law and order and collection of taxes in their iqtas or provinces. They were also responsible for implementing the decision of the courts, providing encouragement to trade and com­merce, and managing judicial administration.

During the Sultanate period, many officials were re­cruited in the provinces for collecting revenue. These officials included nazir and lOakuf. Besides, sahib-i-diwan or khlOaja maintained accounts of the provinces and sent them to the central administration.

Each province was divided into a number of shiqs which were under the officials called shiqdars. The shiqdar was responsible for maintaining law and order in their areas. There was also an official called katwal at the shiq level. The demarcation of duties between shiqdars and katwais is not very clear.
Each shiq was divided into a number of parganas, groups of hundred villages. The chaudhari was the head of a pargana. A m1'shrif was in charge of accounts and revenue at the pargana level.

The village was the smallest unit of administration. The functioning and administration remained basically the same as it had existed during the pre-Turkish phase. Khat, muqaddam and patwari were the main village functionaries.

DISINTEGRATION OF THE SULTANATE

DISINTEGRATION OF THE SULTANATE:

The Delhi Sultanate lasted for 320 years. The causes decline of the Sultanate were: (I) the inherent weak! the system of government; a rule depending upon thE of the sword was bound to disintegrate under the weak rulers; (ii) the actions of Muhammad-bin-Tughl later the appeasement acts of Firuz Shah hasten catastrophe; (iit) the invasion of Timur dealt a terribl to the stability of the empire; (iv) Ibrahim Lodi pro be a foolish, vainglorious prince whose rule becam4 erable even to his own kinsmen; (v) the general ch of the nobility had degenerated, for wealth and brought on the attendant evils of debauchery and e tion; and (vI) the lack of a clear-cut succession policy created problems.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1450)

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1450)

After Mahmud Tughlaq, Delhi remained without a kin two years. Then Khizr Khan, the viceroy of Timur, aSSl the throne in 1414. Khizr Khan was a Sayyid ane dynasty is called the Sayyid dynasty. The four rulers dynasty neither assumed the title of sultan nor struck in their names. The last ruler Ala-ud-din Alam Shah up the kingdom to BahIol Lodi, the Afghan gove~ Punjab, in 1451. Thus began the rule of the Lodis.

THE LODI DYNASTY (1451-1526)

The Lodi dynasty was the first Afghan or Pathan dy in India. BAHLOL LoOl (1451-1489) The founder 0 dynasty was an Afghan noble. A good soldier and a of simple habits, he reduced the turbulent chiefs ( provinces to submission and infused some vigour inl government. The most important event of his reign w, conquest of Jaunpur.

SIKANDAR LoOl (1489-1517) On BahIol's deal second son, Nizam Khan, ascended the throne undl title of Sikandar Shah Lodi. He conquered Bihar and 1 He transferred the capital from Delhi to Agra, a c: founded. Sikandar was the most capable monarch, Lodi dynasty. His administration was strict and imp He organised an efficient system of espionage. In reI matters, however, he was a bigot and an uncompror enemy of Hinduism. He sacked the temples of MathUJ converted the buildings to Muslim uses.

He demolish famous Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot. He charged and pilgrim's tax from the Hindus with severity. Ho! he is also considered a patron of scholars and philoso and he got many Sanskrit works translated into P, IBRAHIM LoOl (1517-1526) On Sikandar's de. eldest son, Ibrahim, became the Sultan. He asserti absolute power of the sultan and often insulted the 1 nobles. Some of these nobles turned against him. There many revolts during his reign. At last Daulat Khal1 the governor of Punjab, invited Babur, the king of to overthrow Ibrahim. Babur seized the opportunij inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodi in th, Battle of Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim was killed in the and with him the Delhi Sultanate came to an end

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1412)

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1412)

Though 'Tughlaq' is a personal name (not referring to any tribe or family), it is customary to use the name 'Tughlaq' to denote an entire dynasty. The Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers-Ghiyas-ud-din, Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq.

GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ (1320-1325) Ghiyas-ud­din restored order everywhere. He built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad near Delhi and strengthened the defences of the northwestern frontier to guard against the recurring danger of Mongol inroads. He conquered Warangal and put down a revolt in BengaL By 1324, the Sultanate's power reached up to Madurai. Ghiyas-ud-din died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised pavilion. Historians opine that his death was due to sabotage arranged by his son, Juna Khan.

MUHAMMAD-BIN- TUGHLAQ (1325-1351) Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, ascended the throne on the death of his father, Ghiyas-ud-din. He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. But most of these failed due to his impatience and lack of judgement. One of his early measures was to improve the revenue depart­ment (1326-1327). He ordered the compilation of a register of revenue and expenditure of the provinces of his kingdom. His next measure was to increase taxation in the Doab with a view to augment his resources.

This step was unpopular with the people and the famine which had occurred at that time added fuel to the fire. The step had to be withdrawn in face of a revolt. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq had advanced ideas about agricultural improvement and he approached it in a scientific way. He created an agricultural department called diwan-i-kohi. Its main objective was to bring the uncultivated land under cultivation by giving direct finan­cial support from the state treasury. But it failed on account of the Sultan's faulty method of giving effect to it.

Another important political measure which he undertook was the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagiri, which was renamed Daulatabad. This move caused a lot of human suffering. The reasons for the transfer were: (i) to have a centrally located capital; (ii) it was not near the north-west frontier which was constantly under Mongol attacks; (iii) to establish stability in the Deccan which was a recent conquest; (iv) to cement his relations with the people of the South which he found was a rich region. Ibn Batutah says that Muhamrnad-bin-Tughlaq was disgusted with the popu­lation of Delhi and thus wanted to punish them. But most of the historians do not agree with Ibn Batutah.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq carried out several monetary experiments and has been called a 'Prince of Moneyers'. In 1329-30, he ordered vast quantities of copper coins to be made with the same value as silver coins. The idea failed as he had done nothing to curb its private and unauthorised issue and thus every house became a mint. He led expedi­tions to conquer Khorasan and Quarajal. But both of these proved a failure.
Muhamrnad-bin-Tughlaq was cruel but generous, reli­gious but free from bigotry, proud but merciful. For these reasons he is called a 'Mixture of Opposites'.

A learned man, he knew both Arabic and Persian. He was at home with philosophy, astronomy, logic and math­ematics. He was also a good calligrapher. He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah. He main­tained good relations with foreigners, and received an envoy from the Chinese ruler, Toghan TImur (1341), who carne to seek permission to rebuild Buddhist temples in the Himalayan region which were destroyed during the Quarajal expedition. He, in turn, sent Ibn Batutah to the Chinese emperor in 1347.

Ibn Batutah was a Moorish traveller. He carne to India in 1333 and was appointed chief qazi of Delhi by Muhamrnad­bin-Tughlaq. He has left an invaluable account of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's reign. In his old age, Ibn Batutah recorded his adventures in a book called Safarnamah. In 1334, Madurai and then Warangal broke free of the Sultanate. In 1336, Vijayanagar and in 1347, the Bahmani kingdoms were founded.

FIRUZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388) Firuz was born in 1309. He was Muhammad's cousin. Firuz was at Thatta when Muh~mmad-bin- Tughlaq breathed his last in 1351. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.

Firuz was of a merciful and pious disposition, and he preferred peace to the glories of conquest. He was a true friend of the peasants and he cancelled the loans which had been advanced by his predecessor. He reduced taxation to the limits prescribed by the Quran. Agriculture was devel­oped by the reclamation of waste lands and by providing irrigation facilities. Firuz mitigated the severity of the criminal law by abolishing torture and mutilation as forms of punishment. His other measures included the establish­ment of a charitable department in Delhi (diwan-i-khairat).

Firuz re-introduced the system of jagirs or grant of land with its revenue to his military officers in lieu of cash salaries. He decreed hereditary succession to iqta.
Firuz Tughlaq was an enthusiastic builder and is famous for his enlightened public works. He built a new capital at Delhi and named it Firuzabad. Its ruins are the Kotla Firuz Shah. He also founded the cities of Hissar, Fatehabad, Firuzpur and Jaunpur. Firuz Tughlaq constructed the Yamuna canal to supply water to the cities of Firuzpur and Hissar. He built the Kali Masjid and Lal Gumbad. He had two of Asoka's pillars brought to Delhi; one from Khizrabad and the other from Meerut. Barani and AsH wrote noteworthy historical works in his reign. Firuz Shah himself authored the Fatuhat-i-Firuz Shahi. He got several Sanskrit works translated into Persian. Firuz is also credited with organising the institution of slavery into a system. He took special care to maintain and educate the slaves, and utilise their services as soldiers, bodyguards and artisans.

Firuz declared his principle of levying taxes strictly according to the Shariat. As such, he insisted on the payment of jaziya by all non-Muslims. He was the first Muslim sultan to strictly impose jaziya on the brahmans who had so far been allowed to escape the tax. Surprisingly for a man of humanitarian actions, Firuz was intolerant towards non­Muslims especially in his later years; within the Muslim community, Firuz accepted only the Sunnis not the Shias or Ismailis. He is reported to have demolished Hindu temples. He is also supposed to have publicly burnt a brahman for preaching to Muslims. He got the painted murals in his own palaces erased.

Firuz Tughlaq is largely held responsible for the down­fall of the Tughlaq dynasty. His revival of the jagir system and establishment of a slave system proved ruinous for the kingdom. On top of this, his intolerant religious policy alienated the Hindus and Shias. His death was followed by succession wars and only a small area around Delhi remained with the Tughlaqs.

TIMUR'S INVASION (1398-99) Amir Timur or Timurlane was a mighty conqueror of Central Asia. His capital was at Samarqand. He invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq. He occupied Delhi on December 18, 1398 and remained there for 15 days. Delhi was sacked and plundered. The Tughlaq empire could never recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end in 1412.

THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)

Muhammad of Ghur left his Indian dominions in the care of his trusted former slave, Qutb-ud-din Aibak. On Muhammad's death, Qutb-ud-din severed his ties with Ghazni an9-. independently founded a new dynasty, gener­ally referred to as the 'mameluks' or slave dynasty. The title is actually a misnomer as three dynasties ruled over Delhi during the period 1206 to 1290. The founders of these dynasties were Qutb-ud-din Aibak, ntutmish and Balban who did not descend from a common ancestor. Only the founders of these dynasties, and no other member, had been ~laves in their early career.

QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210) Aibak received title of Sultan of Delhi from Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud, nephew and successor of Muhammad of Ghur. He strengthened his position by political matrimonial alliances. He was a pious Muslim and his devotion to Islam is known by the two mosques, Quwwat-ud-Islam and Arhai Din K1! Jlzonpara which he built at Delhi and Ajmer respectively. He also began the construction of the celebrated Qutb Minar. He was known as laklz bak/zslz or 'giver of lakhs'. He dieu in 1210, from the effects of a fall from his horse while playing polo.

ILTUTMISH (1210-1236) The full name of I1tutmish was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish. He was Aibak's son~in-Iaw. He faced the chal1enge of Qutb-ud-din Aibak's incompetent son, Aram Shah, (though it has been contended that Aibak had no son), and defeated him in 1211 and made himself secure as the Sultan. On his accession to the throne he had to face many difficulties. But I1tutmish proved himself equal to the situation. One by one he defeated all rivals, and was honoured with the patent of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229. It was iri the reign of I1tutmish that Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, threatened to attack the infant empire. But I1tutmish overcame the situation by refusing to give any shelter to the Khwarizm ruler, Jalal-ud-din whose empire had been attacked by Chi Khan. Before his death he had consolidated his empirE provided it witt> a compact monarchy. To his mi1 abilities he addc~ a fine taste of arts and letters completed the structure of the famous Qutb Minar ~ 1232), in honour ~.f the famous saint, Khwaja Qutb-u( Bakhtiyar Kaki. He was the first ruler to adopt a: monetary standard the silver 'tanka', the ancestor d modem rupee. He further organised the iqtas, the! administration and the army, which was now cent recruited and paid.

RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240) I1tutmish nomii his daughter, Ra... :., as his successor but the nobles 0 court disregarded his wishes and placed his son, RukI din Firoz Shah, on the throne. The new ruler was tl! worthless ar .\..IS soon set aside in favour of Ri Begum. She a:>sumed the title of Sultan.

She revised the and reformed the abuses of the government. But not could reconcile t. .e turbulent Turki chiefs of the cou the rule of .~ M('. 'in. During the reign of I1tutmish leading Turks had formed into a 'college of forty'. Raz firmness and dE"dre to exercise power directly did please these nobles. Also, she offended the nobles b} preference for all Abyssinian slave named Jamal-ul Yakut, who ~'as iven the important office of superil dent of the st.tt-k -listorians, however, do not believe t was any ptrsona intimacy between Raziya and Yi Raziya was the c ily woman who ever sat on the th of Delhi. She was murdered in 1240 near Kaithal.

GHIYAS-lJD-UIN BALBAN (1286-1287) Court trigue continued till Balban finally ascended the tlu However, from 1246 onwards, Balban began to domi Delhi, first as one of the Clzahalgani Turks, and gradually rising t.J the post of Lord Chamberlain. M \'vhile, a line of successors-Bahram Shah, Masud, Nasir-ud-din Ma.1:~ud (in 1246) along with vice-regents.

The KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

JALAL-UD-DIN KHALJI (1290-1296)

ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI (1296-1316)

The Sultanate of Delhi

The conquests of Muhammad of Ghur led to the establish­ment of Turkish rule. A new political entity, the Sultanate of Delhi (for its capital was at Delhi), soon came into being.

The entire period from 1206 to 1526 has been wrongly called the 'Pathan Period'. The rulers of this period, rigrt up to the year 1451, were Turks and not Pathans or Afghans. Only the dynasty that exercised sway over Delhi from 1451 to 1526 was Pathan.